
Realizing that I had nearly no homework for this weekend, I headed down to Emmanuel D'Alzon Library during the afternoon to get some reading done in solitude. Rather than reading some from one of the books I brought to Assumption purely for enjoyment, I read a chapter of
Kwame Anthony Appiah's
Cosmopolitanism, which I purchased for my Global Perspectives class, but out of which only a few chapters have been assigned. Just in case I will not need it later, and I decide to sell it back to the AC bookstore before the return period expires, I thought it wise to read at least a few extra chapters.
I had read the previously assigned chapters with a dose of caution, and while I have found many favorable elements in the philosophy being promoted (
cosmopolitanism), there were good reasons to be wary. The very first sentence of the Introduction is
Our ancestors have been human for a very long time.Our author is a strong believer in evolution, and apparently not of a theistic variety. While Appiah has not [in the sections I have read thusfar] stated his religious beliefs or lack thereof, there is no ambiguity in the line's symbolism: this work is promoting a secular philosophy. Later, in chapter 5, "The Primacy of Practice", Appiah offers examples of cultural values shifting in positive directions as a result of shifting habits rather than reasoned argument. After mentioning the demise of female circumcision and foot-binding, he mentions that
Just a couple of generations ago, in most of the industrialized world, most people thought that middle-class women would ideally be housewives and mothers.He adds, later in the same paragraph,
If the reasons
for the old sexist way of doing things had been the problem, the women's movement could have been done with in a couple of weeks.Yes, there are unintelligent people who supported the more distinct roles of the sexes, but Appiah cannot make such a blanket statement. The theological beliefs of diverse conservative Christians aside, the collapse of the family across the western world is obviously connected to the shift in women's' employment trends, and is enough of a reason to show that the second wave of feminism has proven to be a disaster in every place where it has claimed success, and that disaffection with the new
status quo is well justified (not to mention the greater-than-ever-before need to remove Christian children from the atheistic public school system and [unless one has the money for expensive Catholic schools] home school them, and the accompanying legalization of abortion [unexpected children get in the way of those all-important careers. Men are rightly criticized for often putting career before family, but this trend in women is applauded as progress for their sex]).
Later, Appiah refers to the gay marriage debate in America, citing that we are "not as opposed to gay marriage as they were twenty years ago". Going with the section's theme he notes that
...those Americans who are in favor of recognizing gay marriages probably don't have a simple set of reasons why. It just seems right to them, probably, in the same way that it just seems wrong to those who disagree. (And probably they're thinking not about couples in the abstract but about Jim and John or Jean and Jane).I have got to hand it to Appiah. He's very honest about how the movement to allow two persons of the same sex to "marry" is led by interested parties (homosexuals themselves and their friends and family). About his likening them to the traditional marriage movement and opponents of homosexuality,
I beg to differ. Still, he is right about these shifts not being the results of rational debate.
That is what I had read so far, and I considered these confident opinions reason enough to proceed even more warily than I would have with any book praised by Kofi Annan. To my surprise the second chapter, "The Escape from Positivism", bore concealed philosophical gems which can be interpreted as supports for Catholic dogma.

Before perusing Appiah's work, I had seen Positivism mentioned in two or three places, in the context of errant philosophies born during the "Enlightenment". However, I had not known what Positivism is. Associated with but not invented by 18th century philosopher David Hume, Appiah tells us, Positivism holds that people's actions are
...driven by two fundamentally different kinds of psychological states. Beliefs- the first kind- are supposed to reflect how the world is. Desires, by contrast, reflect how we'd like it to be... beliefs are meant to fit the world; the world is meant to fit desires. So beliefs can be true or false, reasonable or unreasonable. Desires, on the other hand, are satisfied or unsatisfied.I apologize in advance for simply using Appiah's description of someone else's philosophy. But I am not an expert in philosophy (maybe I'll be closer after the Intro to Philosophy course I'm currently taking), and I could not offer better paraphrasing. Essentially, the logical conclusion of positivism is moral relativism, because desires (shaped by one's values) cannot be directly derived from beliefs (as based on observable facts, the rationalist criterion).
Appiah constructs a case for the existence of universal values, an element of cosmopolitanism. In opening his argument, he criticizes Positivism from the postmodern perspective, noting that the building blocks of rationalist arguments and searches for truth, such as colors and numbers, have no physical existence, and that believing a quantity to be known as three or that calling a color red are, along with every statement including an adjective, examples of the verboten value statements. On the same note, he reminds us that a low view of values is itself formed by unprovable values (a Positivist could more easily dispense with this latter conjecture, merely by making the slight shift from disapproval to neutrality, as Appiah implies). So far, so good I say. I'm no Positivist, obviously, and although it seems like common sense that the Creator has some concepts in His mind which correspond to our ideas about mathematics and such, it's not Appiah's job to come up with a Catholic argument regarding some kind of existence for numbers.
The manner of progress chosen for the argument's continuation surprised and fascinated me. Or, as a critic acclaims on the cover regarding the whole of
Cosmopolitanism, it was "elegantly provocative". Appiah focuses specifically on proving that kindness is a universal value (he also mentions democracy as a universal value, but doesn't venture to prove said claim), intrinsically part of human nature, and is therefore not truly subjective. He asks this question:
How, in fact, do people learn that it is good to be kind? Is it by being treated kindly and noticing that they like it? Or by being cruelly treated and disliking it? That doesn't seem quite right: kindness isn't like chocolate, where you find out if you have a taste for it by giving it a try [agreed]
. Rather, the idea that it's good seems to be part of the very concept.What is to be said of those with no taste for kindness, and who do not value it? He states, reasonably enough, that individuals with such convictions are rare. After insisting that most of those individuals who little esteem kindness must not understand kindness in the same way as ordinary people, he says that any who do detest kindness as understood by most of mankind are acting like the
Alice in Wonderland character Humpty Dumpty, who famously [enough that I previously knew the quote] said that to him a word
means just what I choose it to mean- neither more, nor less.Pointing out that language is in every culture normally an interpersonal thing, he gets to the point, ostracizing the idiosyncratic. Comparing them to the Humpty Dumptys of the world he says
You know what you call someone who uses language mostly to talk to himself? Crazy. [I am offended, and await an apology from the philosopher under discussion]
Setting aside those who dislike kindness, he authoritatively says that using the commonly-accepted "language of value" is "part of being human". Case closed, according to Appiah. This makes kindness a universal value.
My problem is, he just leaves off with the assurance that the crazies are wrong. How does one get that from their being an idiosyncratic minority? Because he calls kindness a universal value, it must be universal among our species, for he said that the "language of values" is "part of being human". His definition of a person, so to speak, is not a descendant of our First Parents, or really even the Aristotelian rational animal, but a creature meeting a laundry list of characteristics. Now, I have heard philosophers give such definitions before, but that doesn't make me inclined to accept them. Besides the corollary heresies and the real danger of dehumanizing any
homo sapiens, it becomes apparent that to have universal human values, we must know what a human is. Appiah has offered a partial definition: just a few pages before, he was showing what mayhem can result from making definitions the basis of a philosophy.
And I offer a second dilemma. Recall that he chose kindness over democracy as the universal value for his proof earlier. He likely did it because democracy, far from being inherently loved by all mankind, not only is it not the present system nor demanded in much of the world, but even within democracies there are sane and principled critics (among them many Traditional Catholics. While I certainly don't hate popular government, neither am I crazy about it). I propose that the reason he chose kindness, why it is so much more favorable a value for his argument, is because kindness is too close to being a denominator to describe valuing something, and isn't a concrete value in itself. Not everyone defines kindness in the same way, either. In my personal experience, many have been the arguments about whether or not it is kind to tell "white lies", and not only on theological ground- though that certainly concerns me- but about whether the false image a person gets from white lies outweighs the supposed benefits from not saddening them with little truths. I think dishonesty is always unkind [at another point, Appiah also listed Truth as a "universal value"], while others contend that just a little bit is better than none at all. Aside from that, on the indispensable Dictionary.com, the first synonym listed for kindness is benignity.
Apparently, the Latin root of benign is
benignus, the equivalent of the prefix
beni-, which means good. Kindness, goodness: it can hardly be claimed that goodness or desiring what is good is a "universal value", because good, obviously, is a term not constrained to any situation. If one accepts that valuing an entity means seeing it as good or a good, then we are back to square one again.
Of course, my point has not been to prove that nihilism is correct, for I am not a nihilist. But this does remind me of a conversation I had one fine evening with a nonbeliever. He did the Cartesian breakdown of reality, without the rebuilding afterwards, as so many amateur but effective philosophers do. While I rightly accused him of just finding an easy negation for everything I said, his conclusion was rather relevant to my beliefs. "To me, this is all that's real" he said, pointing down toward his crotch. I have always held that, as Dostoevsky apparently said, "If there is no God, everything is permitted". If Appiah wants universal values, I say, he

should look to St. Thomas Aquinas, and go through the philosophy of God as the First Cause, which I do not know enough about, but which certainly seems like the surest way to rescale the cliff Descartes threw us from, and reclaim reality and morality as side effects of his brand of theism.
While I have made my dissent with Appiah on his secular source of universal values, I did not write this lengthy post merely to rebuke him. Indeed, as I stared about the empty second floor of D'Alzon Library, it occurred to me that he had made a good indirect argument for the Catholic idea that man is naturally good, but was corrupted by the Fall. In whatever sense one defines it as, human beings desire goodness. While I disagreed with the idea that a value is good
because the majority believes it is, the majority opinion that kindness involves engendering benefits to the health, wealth, and spirits of our neighbors (I must be specific)
is correct, even if many of us don't follow through. Mankind is in nature good, as the Church teaches. Those few who love sin and cruelty as such, while I believe them fully human they are, as Appiah concluded, crazy, the flukes in an intrinsically good species. They are a departure from the norm who, rather than being shorn of any exterior good, are more overcome by the corruption of sin and diabolic influence. Perhaps this is not currently at the forefront of theological debate, but it sure does make Luther and Calvin look silly in hindsight.
All things considered, I think Appiah's
Cosmopolitanism has paid for itself by provoking to philosophical thought and reflection. I plan on keeping it and finishing it at some point not too far in the future.